Learning & Memory

Questioning Strategies Improve Learning Classroom

30th July, 2010 - Posted by admin - No Comments

questioning strategies Improve Learning classroom

Learning Strategies and Communication

Learning strategies and communication

Introduction

Communicative strategies are systematic techniques used by a speaker to express his sense approach to some difficulties and the difficulty here refers to insufficient control of the speaker of the language used in the interaction (Faerch & Kasper, 1983:16). On the other hand, the long-term strategies of learning has been defined as "higher order skills that control and regulate the more specific the task, or more practical skills "(Nisbet & Shucksmith, 1986:26). On the basis of definitions previously mentioned, one could say that learning and communication strategies refer to language learning behaviors that contribute directly or indirectly to learning. I'm not concerned here with the definition of both terms, as much as I am concerned by the fact that most if not all non-native speakers and second language learners use these strategies throughout their second language foreign travel or learning. They tend to use them to offset their lack of sufficient language skills and get out of trouble during the interaction in the target foreign or second language. These are just some of the short-term benefits of the use of learning and communication strategies. In fact, the successful use of these strategies can promote language development longer term.

In the first part of this article I will give examples of some commonly used strategies and at the same time, I will focus on how these strategies promote the learning process and development of language skills of the learner. I will also highlight the short and long-term benefits of using both TEM learning strategies and communication in learning and development of language skills. In the second part of the paper, I will show how knowledge of learning and communication strategies has influenced me to change my old style of teaching the language, and how he encouraged me to adopt a new set of teaching methods that use most of these strategies. Finally, I will give you Examples of some of the speaking activities that are based in some way on these strategies and are designed to promote and develop the language skills of the learner.

Part One:

Teaching writing skills has been primarily on teaching language skills in almost all courses and teaching plans and in my country, Oman, does is no exception. writing skills was considered the most important, especially in the field of second / foreign language teaching. On the other hand, language skills has not been adequately emphasized in our lesson plans and teaching it has not been represented fairly in our classrooms rather than other skills. In my context, most people in general and educators in particular, seem to have assumed this responsibility, perhaps because they think it was easy and almost everyone can speak. Talking is However, a skill that deserves much more attention in both the first and second language. I chose to write about this jurisdiction because I know very well how important it is as a means of communication in particular, for second and foreign language learners. Throughout my Teaching English as a foreign language, I noticed that talking is the area of weakness of the majority of my students. From teachers, not so much time was devoted to teaching this skill, and on the part of designers, not so much effort has been exerted to promote the development of this skill. Therefore, was regarded by students as an obstacle in the way of learning English rather than as an important skill. In the following sections, I will try to show how this problem can be addressed through the use of certain strategies.

1 / Examples of learning strategies and communication used by the ESL and EFL students

Thus, numerous studies and research have been conducted in these two areas of learning strategies and communication strategies, and many researchers and linguists were involved. Therefore, different definitions and classifications strategies have been outlined. But here, I will focus on the classification of communication strategies proposed by Faerch and Kasper (1983), and classification of learning strategies suggested by Wenden and Rubin (1987). I will also show how each set of strategies are used by learners of ESL and EFL. I chose the previous classifications, because they confirm the knowledge of the strategies I acquired throughout my teaching experience.

Faerch and Kasper suggest that communication strategies are classified into two categories each of which is classified or composed of sub-categories. The first category is an avoidance behavior, which includes formal reduction and Functional reduction strategies. formal reduction strategies could be phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical strategies. Learners tend to use formal reduction strategies should be taken to avoid mistakes and / or they want to increase their mastery (Faerch & Kasper 1983: 40). On the other hand, the functional reduction strategies include reduction of speech acts and propositional reduction context and both are used by learners to reduce their communication objectives in order to avoid problems in the interaction (ibid: 43). implementation strategies are also called compensatory strategies and consist of code switching, inter / intralingual, cooperative and non-linguistic strategies. These strategies are used by learners to develop their communication resources in interactions (ibid: 45). The following figure has been designed on the basis that was mentioned above:

Wenden and Rubin classified learning strategies in the cognitive strategies and metacognitive. cognitive strategies used by learners when they deal with steps, operations, or solving problems that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials (Wenden & Rubin, 1987:23) and these strategies include clarification and verification, guessing / inductive inference, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization and monitoring. On the other hand, metacognitive strategies are used when dealing with learners' knowledge on cognitive processing and regulation of cognition. These strategies are to choose, prioritize, the self, preparedness, advance the organization, conducted Attention, attention and producing some delay. The following figure has been designed on the basis of the information mentioned above:

2 / The short-term benefits for learners training on the use of learning and communicative strategies

The research and theory in second language learning strongly suggest that many language learners use a variety of strategies to help get the new command of language skills. In his study of Chicano students five who were learning English, Wong Fillmore, cited in Wenden & Rubin (1987:27) has identified some learning strategies used by successful language learners. Wong Fillmore found that using a few well-chosen strategies, learners may continue to participate in oral activities (ibid: 21). In addition, O'Malley (1983), reports on an experiment in which students have received training on the use of learning strategies with three tasks in language, vocabulary, listening and speaking skills. His main conclusion is that the training strategy has been effective listening and speaking, but not vocabulary.

A key short-term benefits of the use of learning strategies is that they help learners to compensate for their lack of knowledge sufficient language. Bygate (1987), indicates that the use of these strategies can bridge the gab between rule knowledge and ability of students to express their own meaning. In other words, these strategies help learners to practice using acceptable language with reasonable fluency and reasonable ability to convey the meanings and express opinions. On this basis, one could infer that students training on the use these strategies help a lot in learning the language. language learners will not be hesitant or afraid of being involved in an interaction they do not have sufficient language skills for that. Bygate adds that trained in the use of learning strategies using learners to succeed in the self-interaction. According to this study, using such strategies in learning is a process transition where the control of learning is shifted from the teacher to students, leaving the learner the responsibility of his own thinking and learning. In addition, Wenden and Rubin (1987) mentions that learning strategies help learners to better use experience they bring to their language courses. Consequently, learners develop their appreciation of power capacity become critical and reflective of the conceptual framework of their learning.

The training effectiveness of communication strategies in learning Language has been proven on many occasions. For example, Spilka (as cited in Faerch & Kasper 1983:10), items that some French students trained tend to use specific phrases to avoid binding in French to avoid partitive in French, Learners may occur as indicated J'Ai trios apples rather than trios Acting I. Thus, French learners make use of the prevention strategy is one of communication strategies. On another occasion, Kasper (1983:43) gave few examples of how learners trained German English to reduce their IT performance with respect to making polite. In addition, Faerch (1983:43) gave other examples of the reduction of the speech act, in which students in a conversation with a native speaker do not often use the opening acts (reduction strategy). Based on everything that has been mentioned, one can say that the strategies learning or whether those contacts is important for learning languages because they are tools for active, autonomous which is essential for developing communicative competence. I turn now to discuss long-term benefits of the use of learning strategies.

3 / The long term benefits of learning language training on the use of learning strategies and communicative

As we saw earlier, there are so many benefits for learners short training on the use learning strategies and communication. Similarly, there are other long-term benefits for the training strategy as well. Faerch and Kasper (1986:189) report on the findings of a study that attempted to educate learners to use strategies of interaction (some of the strategies communication). They were learners of English and Danish strategy training in the use lasted three months. Conclusions are following:

a) learners in the Middle-skill level made considerable progress in the use of interaction strategies.

b) Low and high skills learners made less progress.

g) The general attitude in the class for errors and taking risk has changed. More students accepted the need to make an attempt, even if they have the wrong answer.

On the results of this study, we could say that training learners to use communication strategies raises their confidence and encourages them to participate in various communication interactions, even when they have no language adequate to it (eg, when they are not the answer a question). In a separate study, Knowles (1975) finds that training learners to use these strategies help to develop the attitude that language is a continuous process and acquire the skills of self-learning. Above all, he stresses that communication strategies help learners to be equipped with the skills necessary to continue to learn by themselves when they leave the educational experience formal.

Many other studies have been conducted by different researchers and long-term benefits of communication and learning training strategies have been proven. For example, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) looked at the learning strategies used by both ESL and EFL students and found that training students to use these strategies helped to become more aware of all the process of learning a second language. Based on the findings of their studies, Wenden and Rubin (1987), indicate that learners training to use learning strategies help learners to better use the experience they bring to their language and help to become reflective and critical of the conceptual framework of their learning.

Part:

1 / The influence of learning strategies in my teaching style of language

I have already mentioned that speech is competence dumped in Oman. All focus and emphasis is placed on other skills, as if language proficiency is not or as if the acquisition has been taken for granted. Out of my own experience as an English teacher, I noticed that the Omani difficulty greater student learning English when falls in the area of speech. As teachers, we have not been so Work on this skill because of the fact that there is no official language tests generally low, intermediate and high levels, teaching associate in English in most academic institutions in Oman in general and in the Language Centre at the University Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in particular. We were basically preparing our students to be able to pass the final test which normally contains listening, reading and writing only. Personally, I used to rely on activities in my language classes and activities are not always adapted to the levels of my students of English. However, since it was "the competence of language", I have not bothered to look for more activities or even try to design a simple program to teach it.

After read on learning and communication strategies and have known about their role in the promotion and development of the learning process in general and verbal interaction skills, in particular, I have decided to adopt a new pedagogical approach that allows use fully these strategies. I realized that the new teaching skills, determine student learning and strategies communication, training on these strategies, and help learners become more autonomous. This is because when students take more responsibilities in speaking activities, learning becomes more and teachers and learners feel more happy and satisfied. Teachers including myself, (Especially when one speaks of education) should try to discover what strategies students already use or by questioning questioning them about the strategies employed for the specific language learning tasks (Wenden and Rubinger, 1987). And then they could use them directly learning and communication strategies for a variety of speaking activities. metacognitive strategies such as self-management and self-monitoring can be performed in situations of communication in which the learner wants to gain the maximum of expression understood by others (ibid.). In addition, teachers can provide students with practice in useful strategies for negotiating the meeting to talk outside the classroom. They can also suggest alternative strategies for organizing and storing information and they can encourage students to consider strategies that work best for them. O'Malley and Chamot (quoted in Macdonough, 1995:122) summarize what has been mentioned earlier by saying that cognitive academic language learning approach consists of five phases:

1 / Preparation: educate students to develop different strategies.

2 / Presentation: Developing students' knowledge about strategies.

3 / Practice: developing students' skills in using strategies for student learning.

4 / Rating: develop students' ability to assess their own strategy use.

5 / Expansion: develop strategies for transferring new tasks.

According to these stages, teachers must go through several steps while teaching speech tasks to ensure that students would receive benefits from them and develop their skills would be speaking. We must base our explanation of tasks and instructions on our students communication and learning strategies, and we should try to focus our activities on the development of these strategies. In addition, we could provide students with various activities that allow them to use their strategies in the new language tasks and evaluate their use these strategies.

Macaro (2001:176) has given another way to educate students on the use and development of their strategies. The following figure shows the sequence of steps that must be followed by teachers to make best use of their students learning and communications strategies while teaching English language skills in general and talk in particular.

Another important each teacher must take into account materials and design program. In Oman, the two curricula and program design are prescribed by the Department of Education (For schools), or the Ministry of Higher Education for some colleges and universities. Teachers have an almost passive role in this process. On the other hand, researchers and inspectors of education play a major role and impose their ideas and opinions are not always in favor the learning process, learning situations and students. Teachers are not allowed to innovate or to create materials Additional and they are severely penalized if they deviate from the prescribed curriculum. It's really a difficult task for the teacher to change or at least modify the traditional program, but not impossible. Teachers should try to change those programs and they gradually should have a role in the task of program design. They should be creative, versatile and adaptive in terms of production equipment teaching. Educational authorities in the other hand, must take into account the aspects of learning and communication strategies must be integrated into each program or a program. Finally, it really makes a big difference in teaching and learning if teachers keep in mind the fundamental knowledge of learning and communication strategies while teaching.

pedagogy and examples 2/New some speaking activities

In Oman, most if not all teaching methods adopted the teachers seem to be oriented teacher. The teachers do all the work they teach, explain, ask, give answers and help students. The role of the student is passive, one way or another, they are spoon-fed throughout the school year without being invited to contribute to the study of their activities or even be taught to do. Being a teacher in this country, my style education has been influenced to a large extent with the teaching methods used there. For example, in my language class, I used to do all the speeches, control activities, to seek ideas and choose the appropriate language tasks. I do not used to allow students to express their ideas and if I did, it would be a very limited extent. Even when my students were make a presentation or execution of a dialogue, I used to intervene either by giving my opinion, either by correcting the time time. Only now, after you on learning and communication strategies that I realized the urgent need for strategies education particularly in the field of speech. I also realized that the students' turn to the most talked about in the language class, while the main function of the teacher is to provide the maximum amount of practical significance. In this section, I will try to give some examples of activities to talk and show how they are best taught in the light of student learning and communication strategies.

A / D DIALOGUE and negotiation

The current dialogue and negotiation the language most directly in the contexts in which they are most commonly used, and allow learners to practice in the same manner, thus establishing a strong link between language and situation (Byrne, I976: 2 I). My teaching of the dialogue was a kind of memory task, I usually type of dialogue or negotiation task and give copies to students. All they had to do was read them, remember them and present to the class. Taking student learning and communication strategies into account, I have to do some pre-talk activities and prepare learners in terms of vocabulary and the time that will be used throughout the dialogue / negotiation. This will be their attention on the task and help exploit their planning strategies so that they are ready to some extent to engage in the task. During the task, I would like to intervene when it is possible to provide learners with suggestions and give some alternatives. I would like to focus not so much to correct their mistakes since I am concerned primarily with developing their communication skills. I prefer to congratulate and praise the good performance to create a stimulus and motivation for the rest of the learners to improve their work. I guess that way would work well with my students, because they are scared make mistakes and they are easily motivated by praise, compliments and brands.

b / Imaginary situation

I did not really take this task but it is very important in developing students' ability to be involved in solving Problem tasks, to improvise, and guess Brain Storm. I was not really aware of him and his role in the promotion of language skills. But now, after realizing the importance of this task, I would try to prepare and design tasks that are imaginative culturally appropriate and related updates learners everyday life. For example, I could ask them to imagine that there is a specific problem in their village (eg water becomes salty due to overexploitation) that must be resolved and then ask them to find solutions and try to discuss their own solutions in front of the class. Since the subject is a very serious problem because of the scarcity of water sources in Oman, most Students will be involved and participate in the discussion. I could ask them to discuss together in groups or I could ask each student to speak and justify their opinions. Of course, there are so many other interesting and relevant tasks (for student activities of daily living) that could be used to hook students' attention, maintain their interest in the subject and appeal to their needs and desires.

c / Role Play and Narrative

I taught this task before and I noticed that students were very fond especially when it is embedded in a narrative task. I used to give my students a story and ask them to play roles various characters, it was really easy and fun. In fact, it was another way to teach them to memorize sentences language. If I am to do it is now, I would ask students to compose their own story (in an attempt to focus the time spent for example), then act it out to their colleagues. I firmly believe that this task would work well with most students, even lower because they work in groups and they will have the opportunity to choose the role they really like and that suits their ability language. In performing this task, students will be practicing speaking, prioritize and choose their role, and memorization of certain pieces language. In other words, they will practice the language and develop their learning and communication skills.

Conclusion

The results of the research that has been mentioned in this document proves to some extent in the short and long term benefits of the use of learning strategies in second or foreign language. It also suggests that some learners use strategies more more effectively than others. For this reason, teachers and researchers should work closely to explore the role of motivation in the use of learning strategies (Macaro, 2001). It has also been shown that training is an effective strategy in promoting a predisposition big step towards learning the language and framework that allows the learner to take more responsibility for their learning in the immediate, medium and long term. In this regard, policymakers should be closely involved in supporting the efforts of teachers in facilitating local programs and national training strategy. They should not put in place frameworks for learning (curriculum, program), which places obstacles in the way teachers adapt their teaching needs related to the strategy of their learners. Rather, they should allow teachers some leeway so that they can be creative in terms of defining tasks and activities that would appeal to their students because teachers are those who are in direct contact with the students and, therefore, they should be the ones who know exactly what their students need. On the one hand, teachers must keep in mind that the strategies that plan and evaluate learning strategies and supported by school-leavers and come into contact with the language outside the classroom are those that teachers need more attention on Tum (ibid.).

Bibliography

Bygate, Martin. (1987). Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Faerch, Claus & Kasper, Gabriele. (1983). Interlanguage communication strategies. London: Longnnan,

Byrne, Donn. (1976). Teaching Oral English. London: Longman

Faerch, G. and Kasper, G. (1986). Teachin skills in strategic foreign language. University of Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-learning: a guide for learners and teachers. Press Association: Chicago.

Macaro, Ernesto (2001) .. The learning strategies in the second language classroom and abroad. Great Britain: CPD, Ebbw Vale

Macdonough, Steven H. (1995). Strategy and ability to learn a foreign language. London: Edward Arnold, a division of Hodder Headline PLC.

Nisbet, John & Shucksmith, Janet. (1986). Learning Strategies. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Plc.

O'Malley IM & Russ, RP, et al. (1983). A study of learning strategies to acquire skills in speaking and understanding English language. Rosslyn, VA: Research Associates Interamerica.

O'Malley, JM and Chamot, AU. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wenden, Anita & Rubin, Joan. (1987). Learning Strategies in Language Learning. Cambridge: Prentice Hall International.

Rivers Wilga M. (1972). Speaking in Many Languages, Essays in foreign language teaching. Cambridge: Press Syndicate University of Cambridge.

Wong-Fillmore, L. (1976). The Second Time Around. PhD thesis, University Stanford.

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About the Author

Rashid Al Maamari

BA in English for English Specialists from Sultan Qaboos University (2001)

MA in ESP from the University of Warwick (2003)

Teaching English Language in the Language Centre at Sultan Qaboos University since 2001

Office Tel: +968 24142854

Mobile: +968 99378100

E-mail: rashidm@squ.edu.om

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